Dengue and zika viruses turn people into mosquito bait.

To spread, pathogens drive mice, people to make odorant.

Hypersensitivity to mosquito bites: A versatile Epstein-Barr virus disease with allergy, inflammation, and malignancy.

Hypersensitivity to mosquito bites (HMB) is a rare disease characterized by transient intense skin reaction and systemic inflammation. Clinical presentation of HMB resembles other mosquito allergic responses, and it can also be difficult to clinically distinguish HMB from other severe allergic reactions. However, a distinctive pathophysiology underlies HMB. HMB belongs to a category of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated natural killer (NK) cell lymphoproliferative disorders (LPD). Hence, HMB may progress to systemic diseases, such as hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, chronic active EBV disease, and EBV-associated malignancies. A triad of elevated serum IgE, NK lymphocytosis, and detection of EBV DNA in peripheral blood is commonly observed, and identification of EBV-infected NK cells usually facilitates the diagnosis. However, the effective treatment is limited, and its precise etiology remains unknown. Local CD4+ T cell proliferation triggered by mosquito bites appears to help induce EBV reactivation and EBV-infected NK-cell proliferation. These immunological interactions may explain the transient HMB signs and symptoms and the disease progression toward malignant LPD. Further research to elucidate the mechanism of HMB is warranted for better diagnosis and treatment of HMB and other forms of EBV-associated LPD.

Immunobiology of Acquired Resistance to Ticks.

Ticks are blood-sucking arthropods of great importance in the medical and veterinary fields worldwide. They are considered second only to mosquitos as vectors of pathogenic microorganisms that can cause serious infectious disorders, such as Lyme borreliosis and tick-borne encephalitis. Hard (Ixodid) ticks feed on host animals for several days and inject saliva together with pathogens to hosts during blood feeding. Some animal species can acquire resistance to blood-feeding by ticks after a single or repeated tick infestation, resulting in decreased weights and numbers of engorged ticks or the death of ticks in subsequent infestations. Importantly, this acquired tick resistance (ATR) can reduce the risk of pathogen transmission from pathogen-infected ticks to hosts. This is the basis for the development of tick antigen-targeted vaccines to forestall tick infestation and tick-borne diseases. Accumulation of basophils is detected in the tick re-infested skin lesion of animals showing ATR, and the ablation of basophils abolishes ATR in mice and guinea pigs, illustrating the critical role for basophils in the expression of ATR. In this review article, we provide a comprehensive overview of recent advances in our understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms responsible for the development and manifestation of ATR, with a particular focus on the role of basophils.

Zika virus transmission by Brazilian Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus is virus dose and temperature-dependent.

BACKGROUND: Zika virus (ZIKV) emerged in the Pacific Ocean and subsequently caused a dramatic Pan-American epidemic after its first appearance in the Northeast region of Brazil in 2015. The virus is transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes. We evaluated the role of temperature and infectious doses of ZIKV in vector competence of Brazilian populations of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Two Ae. aegypti (Rio de Janeiro and Natal) and two Ae. albopictus (Rio de Janeiro and Manaus) populations were orally challenged with five viral doses (102 to 106 PFU / ml) of a ZIKV strain (Asian genotype) isolated in Northeastern Brazil, and incubated for 14 and 21 days in temperatures mimicking the spring-summer (28°C) and winter-autumn (22°C) mean values in Brazil. Detection of viral particles in the body, head and saliva samples was done by plaque assays in cell culture for determining the infection, dissemination and transmission rates, respectively. Compared with 28°C, at 22°C, transmission rates were significantly lower for both Ae. aegypti populations, and Ae. albopictus were not able to transmit the virus. Ae. albopictus showed low transmission rates even when challenged with the highest viral dose, while both Ae. aegypti populations presented higher of infection, dissemination and transmission rates than Ae. albopictus. Ae. aegypti showed higher transmission efficiency when taking virus doses of 105 and 106 PFU/mL following incubation at 28°C; both Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus were unable to transmit ZIKV with virus doses of 102 and 103 PFU/mL, regardless the incubation temperature. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The ingested viral dose and incubation temperature were significant predictors of the proportion of mosquito's biting becoming infectious. Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus have the ability to transmit ZIKV when incubated at 28°C. However Brazilian populations of Ae. aegypti exhibit a much higher transmission potential for ZIKV than Ae. albopictus regardless the combination of infection dose and incubation temperature.

The Optimal Age of Vaccination Against Dengue with an Age-Dependent Biting Rate with Application to Brazil.

In this paper we introduce a single serotype transmission model, including an age-dependent mosquito biting rate, to find the optimal vaccination age against dengue in Brazil with Dengvaxia. The optimal vaccination age and minimal lifetime expected risk of hospitalisation are found by adapting a method due to Hethcote (Math Biosci 89:29-52). Any number and combination of the four dengue serotypes DENv1-4 is considered. Successful vaccination against a serotype corresponds to a silent infection. The effects of antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) and permanent cross-immunity after two heterologous infections are studied. ADE is assumed to imply risk-free primary infections, while permanent cross-immunity implies risk-free tertiary and quaternary infections. Data from trials of Dengvaxia indicate vaccine efficacy to be age and serostatus dependent and vaccination of seronegative individuals to induce an increased risk of hospitalisation. Some of the scenarios are therefore reconsidered taking these findings into account. The optimal vaccination age is compared to that achievable under the current age restriction of the vaccine. If vaccination is not considered to induce risk, optimal vaccination ages are very low. The assumption of ADE generally leads to a higher optimal vaccination age in this case. For a single serotype vaccination is not recommended in the case of ADE. Permanent cross-immunity results in a slightly lower optimal vaccination age. If vaccination induces a risk, the optimal vaccination ages are much higher, particularly for permanent cross-immunity. ADE has no effect on the optimal vaccination age when permanent cross-immunity is considered; otherwise, it leads to a slight increase in optimal vaccination age.

Knowledge, attitudes, and practices about dengue among pupils from rural schools in an endemic area in Colombia / Conocimientos, actitudes y prácticas sobre dengue en estudiantes de escuelas rurales de un área endémica en Colombia

INTRODUCTION: Dengue is a public health problem in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Studies on dengue in rural areas are scarce since the disease is considered mainly urban. OBJECTIVE: To determine the knowledge (K), attitudes (A) and practices (P) of dengue in an endemic area in Colombia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study with 515 pupils (7-16 years old) in 34 rural schools in Anapoima and La Mesa municipalities during 2011. Each KAP category was evaluated independently by a scoring system and then categorized into high, medium or low. RESULTS: Pupils recognized knowledge variables such as the symptoms (fever, bone pain), transmission route (mosquito bites), and mosquito breeding sites (uncovered water tanks, solid waste). Average scores on attitude were high in both municipalities indicating a well-developed perception of disease severity. Seeking treatment in medical centers and self-medication for fever management and the use of mosquito net and space-spraying of insecticides were the most frequently identified practices. DISCUSSION: This is the first KAP dengue study performed in a rural area in Colombia and as such it contributes to the understanding of dengue perceptions by the inhabitants of these areas. It showed a medium level of knowledge about dengue and a lower level of preventive practices in pupils from rural schools. It also showed that pupils considered space-spraying as crucial for vector control. The presence of the vector in rural areas of the country underlines the need to improve surveillance and education to more effectively control the vector and promote prevention methods including community participation.

Introducción. El dengue es un problema de salud pública en las regiones tropicales y subtropicales del mundo. Los estudios sobre la enfermedad en áreas rurales son escasos debido a que se presenta principalmente en los núcleos urbanos. Objetivo. Determinar los conocimientos, las actitudes y las prácticas sobre el dengue en un área rural endémica en Colombia. Materiales y métodos. Se hizo un estudio transversal con 515 estudiantes, entre los 7 y los 16 años de edad en 34 escuelas rurales de los municipios de Anapoima y La Mesa en el 2011. Cada categoría se evaluó por separado con un puntaje clasificado como alto, medio o bajo. Resultados. Los estudiantes reconocieron los síntomas (fiebre, dolor de huesos), la ruta de transmisión (picadura de mosquitos) y los criaderos (depósitos de agua destapados, residuos sólidos). El promedio de los puntajes de actitudes fue alto en ambos municipios, lo que indica que percibían la gravedad del dengue. Las prácticas más frecuentes de tratamiento de la fiebre fueron la consulta médica y la automedicación, en tanto que los métodos de control más frecuentes fueron el uso de mosquiteros y el rociamiento con insecticidas. Discusión. Este es el primer estudio de conocimientos, actitudes y prácticas sobre el dengue en un área rural de Colombia. Los resultados contribuyen a entender las percepciones de la enfermedad en sus habitantes y evidenciaron niveles medios de conocimiento y puntuaciones bajas en cuanto a las prácticas entre los estudiantes de las escuelas rurales. Los estudiantes consideraron que la fumigación es importante para el control del vector. La presencia del mosquito en áreas rurales del país resalta la necesidad de mejorar la vigilancia y la educación para lograr un control efectivo del vector y promover métodos de prevención que incluyan la participación comunitaria.

Knowledge, attitudes and practices about dengue among pupils from rural schools in Colombia / Conocimientos, actitudes y prácticas sobre dengue en estudiantes de escuelas rurales en Colombia

Abstract Introduction: Dengue is a public health problem in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Studies on dengue in rural areas are scarce since the disease is considered mainly urban. Objective: To determine the knowledge (K), attitudes (A) and practices (P) of dengue in an endemic area in Colombia. Materials and methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study with 515 pupils (7-16 years old) in 34 rural schools in Anapoima and La Mesa municipalities during 2011. Each KAP category was evaluated independently by a scoring system and then categorized into high, medium or low. Results: Pupils recognized knowledge variables such as the symptoms (fever, bone pain), transmission route (mosquito bites), and mosquito breeding sites (uncovered wáter tanks, solid waste). Average scores on attitude were high in both municipalities indicating a well-developed perception of disease severity. Seeking treatment in medical centers and self-medication for fever management and the use of mosquito net and space-spraying of insecticides were the most frequently identified practices. Discussion: This is the first KAP dengue study performed in a rural area in Colombia and as such it contributes to the understanding of dengue perceptions by the inhabitants of these areas. It showed a medium level of knowledge about dengue and a lower level of preventive practices in pupils from rural schools. It also showed that pupils considered space-spraying as crucial for vector control. The presence of the vector in rural areas of the country underlines the need to improve surveillance and education to more effectively control the vector and promote prevention methods including community participation.

Resumen Introducción. El dengue es un problema de salud pública en las regiones tropicales y subtropicales del mundo. Los estudios sobre la enfermedad en áreas rurales son escasos debido a que se presenta principalmente en los núcleos urbanos. Objetivo. Determinar los conocimientos, las actitudes y las prácticas sobre el dengue en un área rural endémica en Colombia. Materiales y métodos. Se hizo un estudio transversal con 515 estudiantes, entre los 7 y los 16 años de edad en 34 escuelas rurales de los municipios de Anapoima y La Mesa en el 2011. Cada categoría se evaluó por separado con un puntaje clasificado como alto, medio o bajo. Resultados. Los estudiantes reconocieron los síntomas (fiebre, dolor de huesos), la ruta de transmisión (picadura de mosquitos) y los criaderos (depósitos de agua destapados, residuos sólidos). El promedio de los puntajes de actitudes fue alto en ambos municipios, lo que indica que percibían la gravedad del dengue. Las prácticas más frecuentes de tratamiento de la fiebre fueron la consulta médica y la automedicación, en tanto que los métodos de control más frecuentes fueron el uso de mosquiteros y el rociamiento con insecticidas. Discusión. Este es el primer estudio de conocimientos, actitudes y prácticas sobre el dengue en un área rural de Colombia. Los resultados contribuyen a entender las percepciones de la enfermedad en sus habitantes y evidenciaron niveles medios de conocimiento y puntuaciones bajas en cuanto a las prácticas entre los estudiantes de las escuelas rurales. Los estudiantes consideraron que la fumigación es importante para el control del vector. La presencia del mosquito en áreas rurales del país resalta la necesidad de mejorar la vigilancia y la educación para lograr un control efectivo del vector y promover métodos de prevención que incluyan la participación comunitaria.

Mantle cell lymphoma presenting with exaggerated skin reaction to insect bites.

We present the case of a 62-year-old African-American woman with medical history of hypertension and hyperlipidaemia who presented to dermatology clinic for 'bug bites'. Skin examination showed resolving bullae on the shins and postinflammatory pigment changes. Histopathology showed eosinophilic spongiosis and direct immunofluorescence (DIF) was negative for IgG, IgM, IgA and C3. After returning to clinic with recurrent severe bullous eruptions, the patient presented with anaemia, lymphocytosis, posterior cervical lymphadenopathy and weight loss. An exuberant bite reaction in the setting of lymphoma was suspected. Further workup with haematology revealed elevated IgG level and total protein levels. Flow cytometry showed a B cell lymphoma subtype. Extensive imaging was positive for diffuse lymphadenopathy, with accompanying evidence of Ebstein-Barr virus infection. Our case highlights the importance of considering exuberant arthropod bite reaction in the setting of undiagnosed lymphoma in a patient with bullous eruption and negative DIF.

Knowledge, practices and entomological aspects of dengue in Medellín, Colombia: A comparative study of neighborhoods with high and low incidence

Introduction: Dengue, mainly transmitted by Aedes aegypti, is a very important viral disease in terms of public health. Colombia is an endemoepidemic country for dengue and, in cities like Medellín, there are neighborhoods with high and low incidence. The disease dynamics in the neighborhoods might be determined by differences in the knowledge, practices and entomological aspects of the vector among the communities. Objective: To identify the knowledge and practices of residents of neighborhoods with high and low incidence of dengue, and to explore the entomological aspects related to the presence of the vector. Materials and methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study comparing two neighborhoods with high incidence and two with low incidence during the triennium of 2013-2015. A random sample of 100 houses per neighborhood was selected in order to evaluate the knowledge, practices and entomological aspects related to dengue. In addition, descriptive, bivariate and multivariate analyses (logistic regression) were performed. Results: In neighborhoods with high incidence, participants had not attended school or had only a primary school level of education (OR=1.69; 95% CI: 1.09-2.63). Additionally, they did not have health coverage or belonged to the subsidized regime (OR=2.16; 95% CI: 1.41-3.32). In contrast, they had a greater knowledge of the vector (OR=1.53; 95% CI: 1.00-2.35). In terms of practices, there was a greater chance of finding houses where water was stored (OR=1.69; 95% CI: 1.11-2.57) and regarding the entomological aspects, more houses with adult mosquitoes were found (OR=2.13 95% CI: 1.29-3.50). Conclusions: We found important differences among the neighborhoods regarding knowledge, practices, and the presence of adult stages of the vector, which helps to explain the epidemiology of dengue in these sites.

A discrete time west nile virus transmission model with optimal bird- and vector-specific controls.

A discrete-time model describing the west nile virus transmission among the mosquito, wild bird, and domestic bird populations is constructed. The expressions for the basic reproduction number R0 and the disease-free fixed point of the model are computed. The local stability of the disease-free fixed point is established based on R0. Optimal control theory is used to devise the most effective administration profile of mosquito larvicide, mosquito adulticide and domestic bird-protection in controlling the virus transmission among the mosquito - wild bird - domestic bird community.

Optimal control strategies for dengue transmission in pakistan.

This paper presents a deterministic model for dengue virus transmission. The model is parameterized using data from the 2017 dengue outbreak in Pakistan. We estimated the basic reproduction number (R0) without any interventions for the 2017 dengue outbreak in Peshawar district of Pakistan as R0≈2.64, the distribution of the reproduction number lies in the range R0∈[1.21,5.24] (with a mean R0≈2.64). Optimal control theory is then applied to investigate the optimal strategy for curtailing the spread of the disease using two time-dependent control variables determined from sensitivity analysis. These control variables are insecticide use and vaccination. The results show that the two controls avert the same number of infections in the district regardless of the weights on the costs this is due to the reciprocal relationship between the cost of insecticide use and vaccination. A strong reciprocal relationship exists between the use of insecticide and vaccination; as the cost of insecticide increases the use of vaccination increases. The use of insecticide on the other hand slightly increases when vaccination level decreases due to increase in cost.

A mathematical model for Zika virus transmission dynamics with a time-dependent mosquito biting rate.

BACKGROUND: Mathematical modeling has become a tool used to address many emerging diseases. One of the most basic and popular modeling frameworks is the compartmental model. Unfortunately, most of the available compartmental models developed for Zika virus (ZIKV) transmission were designed to describe and reconstruct only past, short-time ZIKV outbreaks in which the effects of seasonal change to entomological parameters can be ignored. To make an accurate long-term prediction of ZIKV transmission, the inclusion of seasonal effects into an epidemic model is unavoidable. METHODS: We developed a vector-borne compartmental model to analyze the spread of the ZIKV during the 2015-2016 outbreaks in Bahia, Brazil and to investigate the impact of two vector control strategies, namely, reducing mosquito biting rates and reducing mosquito population size. The model considered the influences of seasonal change on the ZIKV transmission dynamics via the time-varying mosquito biting rate. The model was also validated by comparing the model prediction with reported data that were not used to calibrate the model. RESULTS: We found that the model can give a very good fit between the simulation results and the reported Zika cases in Bahia (R-square = 0.9989). At the end of 2016, the total number of ZIKV infected people was predicted to be 1.2087 million. The model also predicted that there would not be a large outbreak from May 2016 to December 2016 due to the decrease of the susceptible pool. Implementing disease mitigation by reducing the mosquito biting rates was found to be more effective than reducing the mosquito population size. Finally, the correlation between the time series of estimated mosquito biting rates and the average temperature was also suggested. CONCLUSIONS: The proposed ZIKV transmission model together with the estimated weekly biting rates can reconstruct the past long-time multi-peak ZIKV outbreaks in Bahia.

Knowledge about the human immunodeficiency syndrome among elders in a unit for the care of the elderly. / Conhecimento sobre síndrome da imunodeficiência humana de idosos de uma unidade de atenção ao idoso.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the knowledge of elders regarding HIV/AIDS. METHODS: Descriptive, cross-sectional, quantitative study, with 457 elders from the Unit for the Care of Elders in Uberaba - Minas Gerais, lasting 3 months. The instruments used were the Mental State Mini-exam and a questionnaire on the human immunodeficiency virus for elders, together with frequency measures for their analysis. RESULTS: Most participants were female (74%), between 60 and 69 y/o (51%). The question with the most correct answers was about syringe/needle transmission (96.2%) and the ones with the least (45.3% and 49.6%, respectively) were regarding AIDS transmission through mosquito bites and whether a person with the human immunodeficiency virus always presents symptoms (49.6%). 88.2% of participants never use condoms. CONCLUSION: The general level of knowledge can be considered good, responding to our goal. However, gaps in knowledge were identified due to the lack of campaigns aimed exclusively at such public, as well as to the lack of awareness of professionals.

[Dengue with unusual clinical features in an infant: Case report]. / Dengue, presentación inusual en un lactante: Reporte de un caso.

The state of Yucatan, in Mexico, is an endemic area for dengue. During 2015, there was an unpredicted increase in the number of expected cases of dengue fever. OBJECTIVE: To describe and analyse the clinical presentation, progress, and management of a case of dengue infection with non-specific clinical manifestations in an infant which resulted in a dengue shock syndrome. CASE REPORT: One month old infant admitted to hospital with a generalised rash and a history of being bitten by an insect. He was diagnosed with anaphylaxis based on clinical manifestations and anamnesis. While in hospital, he developed hypotension, tachycardia, anaemia, and respiratory distress. He was transferred to the intensive care unit, but died on the fifth day. He tested positive to dengue virus in the PCR test and for IgG antibodies using Elisa. The basic cause of death was dengue shock syndrome. CONCLUSIONS: Dengue fever in young infant infections may be afebrile, so it is important to suspect them appropriately in the presence of a generalised rash, tachycardia, and hypotension, in order to avoid the deadly consequences of dengue shock.

Mosquito Biting Modulates Skin Response to Virus Infection.

Mosquito-borne infections are increasing in number and are spreading to new regions at an unprecedented rate. In particular, mosquito-transmitted viruses, such as those that cause Zika, dengue, West Nile encephalitis, and chikungunya, have become endemic or have caused dramatic epidemics in many parts of the world. Aedes and Culex mosquitoes are the main culprits, spreading infection when they bite. Importantly, mosquitoes do not act as simple conduits that passively transfer virus from one individual to another. Instead, host responses to mosquito-derived factors have an important influence on infection and disease, aiding replication and dissemination within the host. Here, we discuss the latest research developments regarding this fascinating interplay between mosquito, virus, and the mammalian host.

A review of Zika virus infections in pregnancy and implications for antenatal care in Singapore.

Given the consensus that there is a causal relationship between Zika virus (ZIKV) infection in pregnancy and congenital Zika syndrome (CZS), clinicians must be prepared to manage affected patients despite the numerous gaps in current knowledge. The clinical course in pregnancy appears similar to that in non-pregnant women, although viraemia may be prolonged. ZIKV infection can be diagnosed by serum and urine reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, but commercially available serological tests are currently unreliable in dengue-endemic regions. Although vertical transmission can occur at any time during gestation, first- and second-trimester infections have the highest risk of developing central nervous system anomalies. Aberrant fetal growth and pregnancy loss may also occur. Serial ultrasonography should be conducted for infected cases. Without a vaccine, pregnant women should be advised to minimise mosquito bites and reduce sexual transmission risk. Overall, the absolute risk of CZS arising amid a ZIKV outbreak appears relatively low.

Dengue, presentación inusual en un lactante: reporte de un caso / Dengue with unusual clinical features in an infant: case report

El estado de Yucatán (México) es un área endémica para dengue. Durante el 2015 hubo un incremento en el número de casos esperados. OBJETIVO: Describir y analizar la presentación clínica, evolución y manejo de un caso de infección por dengue con manifestaciones clínicas inespecíficas en un lactante menor, que derivaron en síndrome de choque por dengue. CASO CLÍNICO: Lactante de un mes que consulta por eritema generalizado y antecedente de picadura de insecto. Su manejo hospitalario se basó en la resolución del episodio agudo de anafilaxia. Durante su estadía presentó hipotensión, taquicardia, anemia y dificultad respiratoria. Se derivó a terapia intensiva pediátrica, pero al quinto día de estancia falleció debido a síndrome de choque. La RPC y serología de anticuerpos IgG confirmaron etiología por dengue. CONCLUSIONES: Las infecciones por dengue en el lactante menor pueden cursar afebriles, por lo cual es importante sospecharlas oportunamente ante la presencia de eritema generalizado, taquicardia e hipotensión, con la finalidad de evitar las consecuencias letales del choque por dengue.

The state of Yucatan, in Mexico, is an endemic area for dengue. During 2015, there was an unpredicted increase in the number of expected cases of dengue fever. OBJECTIVE: To describe and analyse the clinical presentation, progress, and management of a case of dengue infection with non-specific clinical manifestations in an infant which resulted in a dengue shock syndrome. CASE REPORT: One month old infant admitted to hospital with a generalised rash and a history of being bitten by an insect. He was diagnosed with anaphylaxis based on clinical manifestations and anamnesis. While in hospital, he developed hypotension, tachycardia, anaemia, and respiratory distress. He was transferred to the intensive care unit, but died on the fifth day. He tested positive to dengue virus in the PCR test and for IgG antibodies using Elisa. The basic cause of death was dengue shock syndrome. CONCLUSIONS: Dengue fever in young infant infections may be afebrile, so it is important to suspect them appropriately in the presence of a generalised rash, tachycardia, and hypotension, in order to avoid the deadly consequences of dengue shock.

Zika Virus Disease: Case Report and Review of Literature.

Zika virus (ZIKV) infection and its associated complications have become a significant public health concern. Zika virus is a Flavivirus, and is transmitted to humans by Aedes species mosquitoes. In May 2015, the World Health Organization reported the first locally acquired transmission of ZIKV in Brazil, the first case in the Western Hemisphere. There have also been reports of increased incidence of microcephaly and other neurologic complications associated with ZIKV infection, as well as a 20-fold increase in the incidence of Guillain-Barre Syndrome during ZIKV outbreaks. In light of the clusters of microcephaly and neurologic manifestations in areas of ZIKV transmission, the World Health Organization declared ZIKV and associated complications an international public health emergency. The clinical presentations of ZIKV disease resemble many common infections, making the diagnosis of ZIKV disease a clinical challenge. Patients with ZIKV infection may have other coinfections that can distract clinicians from suspecting ZIKV disease in their patients. Complications from ZIKV, although uncommon, may be severe. Therefore, it is important for health care providers to remain alert and up to date in the efforts to control this emerging global health crisis. It is critical for physicians and other providers to know the growing list of countries and territories on the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention list of nations with endemic ZIKV disease and to work closely with local health departments to prevent spread. In this article, we present a case of ZIKV disease in a pediatric patient and review of the current literature.

Zika--an emerging infectious disease. The risk assessment from Polish perspective.

In the last years, attention has been paid to Zika virus (ZIKV) infection, the emerging vector-borne disease. It is responsible for major outbreaks in Africa, Asia and, more recently, in previously infection-naïve territories of the Pacific area, South America and Caribbean. The etiology, epidemiology, transmission, and clinical manifestations of ZIKV disease are discussed, along with the diagnostic possibilities in the aim to assessing the risk of its introduction to Poland. ZIKV is spread by Aedes mosquitoes which are not found throughout Poland. The prevention strategies adopted by national public health authorities should be based on a surveillance of imported cases and on increasing awareness among healthcare professionals and travelers. Due to a large number of asymptomatic ZIKV infections and limitations in the availability of diagnostic tests, monitoring based on laboratory results is likely to be unreliable in Poland. There are no requirements to report ZIKV infections to the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Nevertheless, the global epidemic continues to spread, and despite travels of Poles to countries in which Aedes mosquitoes are active, Polish sportsmen will be travelling to Brazil in August 2016 to participate in the Olympic Games, the will also be true of the many fans who will follow them; therefore imported cases of ZIKV infection are possible. As the awareness of the infection risk will increase among medical staff and travelers, the number of suspected cases of travel-related ZIKV infections may rise in Poland. Medical staff should be informed where and how to report such cases. Thorough surveillance, adequate assessment of possible threats, action plans, rapid and effective intervention development, spread of up to date information of ZIKV, as well as other emerging or re-emerging infectious pathogens can play a key role in guaranteeing population health.